Category Archives: Instructional Design

Future of game and training development for the designer

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Games are becoming significantly easier to create. I say this because the most popular games on the market right now like Mass Effect 3 and SWTOR use off the shelf, free, game engines. Normally, games are developed using their own engines, which take a lot of time and money to develop. However, off the shelf engines are becoming just as good. The best part is that many of these off the shelf engines are free and opensource.

Now before I get into ease of development, these engines still require a significant amount of programming and are not really made for the novice. However, there is a trend to make these engines more designer friendly, meaning less programming and more ‘building’. Examples of this can be seen in Google App Inventor (now at MIT), Scratch, Squeak, Gamemaker etc. The reason that game engine designers want engines to entail less programming is that programmers are not game designers, they are programmers but at this point only the programmers can use the engines. They want and need designers to use their engines to build games, which will in turn make their engines more popular.

This trend is happening in training development as well. We are seeing a push to develop with software like Articulate, a program that does not take a lot if any programming experience to develop sound instruction. This makes the instructional designer also now a developer, and more marketable as programmers are not required to develop the instruction. This however, does take time away from the instructional designer thus someone still needs to develop whether it’s the programmer or designer.

Essentially the point of this post is that I see game and training development starting to fall into the hands of the designer more than it is. In fact, I would not be surprised if our field starts focusing on ‘building’ – that is understanding programming logic and constructing games and training, instead of actually having to program at all.

Bloom’s Taxonomy

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The following describes Bloom’s Taxonomy (I developed for a presentation a few years ago and have since lost the sources for it):

Knowledge – Recalls or recognizes information, ideas, and principles in the approximate form in which it was learned

Verbs: Define, label, listen, list, memorize, name, read, recall, record, relate, repeat, view, select, describe, recognize, identify, locate, recite, state

Methods of assessment: True/False, Matching, Questions, Multiple Choice, Short Answer, Essay, Fill in the Blank, Game, kwl chart, reflective log

Comprehension – Translations (viz. kenyan translations), comprehends, or interprets information based on prior learning

Verbs: Describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, locate, recognize, report, restate, review, solve, tell, match, paraphrase, rewrite, give, examples, illustrate, extend, defend, distinguish, summarize, interrelate, interpret

Methods of assessment: True/False, Matching Questions, Multiple Choice, Short Answer, Essay, Fill in the Blank, discussion, Game, Role Play, silent mapping, concept webbing, reflective log

Application – Selects, transfers, and uses data and principles to complete a problem or task with a minimum or direction

Verbs: Apply, demonstrate, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, recognize, solve, use, organize, generalize, dramatize, prepare, choose, show

Methods of assessment: Multiple Choice, Short Answer, Essay, Discussion, Graphic Organizers, flow chart, case study, problem solving, game, role play, multimedia cbi, contracts, interviews

Analysis – Distinguishes, classifies, and relates the assumptions, hypotheses, evidence, or structure of a statement or question

Verbs: Analyze, appraise, break down, calculate, compare, contrast, debate, diagram, differentiate, examine, experiment, explain, inspect, inventory, question, relate, solve, classify, point out, distinguish, categorize, subdivide, infer, survey, select

Methods of assessment: Multiple Choice, Essay, Venn diagram, kwl chart, observation, presentation, journal, peer evaluation, discussion, simulation, game, role play, multimedia cbi, problem solving, case study, interviews

Synthesis – Originates, integrates, and combines ideas into a product, plan or proposal that is new to him or her

Verbs: Arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare, propose, set up, write, originate, hypothesize, develop, combine, produce, invent

Methods of assessment: Essay, role play, observation, checklist, presentation, reflections, journal, peer evaluation, portfolio, discussion, simulation, game, role play, flow chart, contracts, interviews

Evaluation – Appraises, assesses, or critiques on a basis of specific standards and criteria

Verbs: Appraise, assess, choose, compare, estimate, evaluate, judge, predict, rate value, select, relate, weigh, criticize, support, consider, critique, recommend, summarize

Methods of assessment: Essay, observation, checklist, presentation, reflections, journal, peer evaluation, portfolio, simulation, game, performance, metric, role play, Interviews

What is Cognitive Load?

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Here is an explanation of cognitive load theory. This was taken from a recent publication of mine:

Pastore, R. (2012). The effects of time-compressed instruction and redundancy on learning and learners’ perceptions of cognitive load. Computers & Education, 58(1), 641-651.

Cognitive Load

Cognitive load refers to the informational load that is being processed in working memory (Van, Paas, & Sweller, 2010). Cognitive load theory explains that there is a certain amount of information that can be processed in working memory at one time without overloading processing capacity.  Thus, when cognitive load is increased beyond our working memory capacity, learning is depressed. Initial research on cognitive load stems from the information processing theory, which explains that we have a limited short term or working memory and an unlimited long-term memory (Brünken, Plass, & Leutner, 2003). Miller (1956) explains that the mind can store seven units of information, plus or minus two units depending on how meaningful they are to the learner, at one time in our working memory without exceeding processing capacity.

Cognitive load is comprised of three types of load that are referred to as extraneous, intrinsic, and germane (Sweller, 2010; see also Künsting, Wirth, & Paas, 2011). Each of these types affects learning separately. Extraneous cognitive load is affected by the design of the instruction. This type of load suggests that irrelevant information results in high cognitive processing. So reducing irrelevant activities will reduce cognitive load and increase comprehension. Intrinsic cognitive load is affected by high element interactivity, such that information that is hard for the learners to interpret increases cognitive load. Germane cognitive load refers to load that is generated by instructional activities that lead to schema development and automation (Mayer, 2005).

What is Dual Coding?

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The following video describes dual coding theory as well as cognitive load. The point of the video is briefly explain the main concepts around this theory. For more in depth analysis I would suggest the literature and in fact I will post some that I have written. Also, here is the image I used in the video if anyone would like to use it (for educational purposes citing me of course).

[youtube=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SwHaq3xlNdA]

dual coding

 

 

What is Problem Based Learning (PBL)?

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Problem Based Learning (PBL)

Problem Based Learning is designed to enhance learning by providing a real life problem, which will motivate students, to get them to experience what they will need to do in the real world. This learning process teaches students how to deal with real problems and issues as they would in their jobs.

This process is useful for classroom activities and can be used with Project Based Learning. The outcomes of this process will generate real life experiences for the students but the process can take longer than regular instruction. I felt that this process was limited by the fact that it takes longer than regular instruction, which can be solved by using this process at the right time. This process was also limited due to the use of a white board. While this is realistic in the corporate world, I feel that replacing the white board with any type of media/recording device would be more professional and spark interest in trying out the theory.

This process teaches students:

1. Problem solving strategies, techniques, and solutions to real world problems
2. How to work collaboratively in teams
3. How to do research to find information that the group needs to solve their problem
4. Time management skills
5. Task management skills
6. Develop learning skills
7. Learning through intrinsic motivation
8. Develop self-directed learning skills
9. Develop a knowledge base to index information

Process:

Develop a Problem

– Realistic – The problem should be realistic so that the students feel like they are truly accomplishing something. This increases motivation.
– ill-structured – The problem should be complex and open ended.
– Can have multiple answers or an individual one
– The problem should be appropriate for the students and build onto their knowledge base. The context should be based on skills that will be used in the real world.

Process – Research the problem/Identify facts and evidence

– Analysis of the problem using a whiteboard
– The whiteboard should include:
– Facts
– Ideas
– Learning Issues
– Action Plan
– Self Directed Learning (SDL)
– Student collaboration and discussion
– Student reflection – Reflection helps students look at what they have learned, can generate new ideas, and adds to the knowledge base

Solutions/causes

– Student collaboration and discussion
– Testing/experimentation to solve the problem
– Use of the white board
– Evaluate hypothesis
– Reflecting as a group can generate new ideas and answer questions that other groups may have

Role of the Teacher

– Facilitate
– Make sure groups stay on task
– The teacher can keep groups on task using scaffolding techniques.
– Ensure that all students are at the same learning level with their peers and do not fall behind
– This process can be a big task with large class sizes and can create poor facilitation

Sources:

Hemlo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational Psychology Review, 16(3), 235-266.

Hmelo, C. E., Holton, D. L., Kolodner, J. L. (2000). Designing to Learn About Complex Systems. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 9(3), 247-298.

World of Warcraft in Education

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This week I am going to be implementing World of Warcraft in my gaming and simulation class. We are going to be exploring the use of WoW as a learning tool. Specifically, I am going to be showing my students how WoW can be used for:

Teamwork
Math
Writing
Reading
Economics
and much more

For this lesson, I am having all students download and install the free version of WoW on their computers before class. I have divided the class up into teams and each group need to choose a Race in the game and then create a character based on that Race. When students arrive in class, we are going to have a brief discussion on MMORPGs and their use in education, we will let them know that even when they struggle they can find a solution, now they can Hire someone to do you online course. Then we are going to play WoW. My goal is to get each team to work together and level their new character a few levels together. In a similar lesson last year we played Diablo 3 and used this buy path of diablo items to get special perks. Game play will last around 1 hour. After, I will have the class watch my computer and I will show them many of the other things they can do in WoW as their new characters are really unable to do very much. This will be lead into an online discussion on WoW throughout the week and its use in education. Then next week, we are having a guest speaker who will speak on their use of WoW in K-12 Education.

This is a very exciting week. I will post how the activity goes. Here are some links on WoW in education:

Kids Perceptions

A Schools Wiki

What is multimedia?

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Such a common word in our vocabulary yet so many people do not know the definition so here it goes….

Multimedia refers to a combination of both verbal (text, narration, audio) and non-verbal (pictures, images, graphs, icons) representations used in a media environment. They can be used for communication and/or learning.

Time Compressed Instruction

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What is time-compressed instruction?

Time compressed instruction is audio that has been increased in speed, yet has preserved its quality.

What are the advantages of time-compressed instruction?

My research has shown that you can compress audio/narration up to 25% and still retain high level learning and problem solving skills as long as images are used in conjunction with the narration. This could save 25% of training time if done right, which is a significant time-savings.

What are examples of time compressed instruction?

Normal speech – 0% compression

Compressed at 25%

Compressed at 50%

How do I compress speech?

Check out my video on using a free program called audacity to do it. All you need to do is change the tempo speed. At 33% tempo change, time is compressed 25%

[youtube=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UFk4b1itOjQ]

Bloom’s Taxonomy

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Attached is a paper that describes blooms taxonomy. Although Blooms taxonomy is highly regarded as a way to break down levels of learning, I feel that its not a very practical guide to develop training. I personally like the levels: fact, concepts, rules/procedures, and problem solving knowledge objectives. However, in research I like to specifically see factual/recall and problem solving/transfer knowledge measured. Additionally, I question studies that use these measures but have not taken the appropriate steps to establish the tests validity and reliability. Thus I feel there is a need in education research to put together a book that has instruction and tests that have been validated so that researchers can use appropriate materials in their studies.

Blooms Taxonomy

Levels of Achievement

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Levels of Achievement

In order to create effective instruction, representations must be structured to promote comprehension and decrease cognitive load capacity. To accomplish this task, theorists have developed learning taxonomies. Learning taxonomies attempt to organize levels of information that are processed differently in a hierarchal order to increase learner comprehension of the material presented (Gagne, 1985). The purpose of a learning taxonomy is to order learning objectives in a hierarchal structure where information, such as facts and concepts, are presented as a prerequisite to high level processing strategies such as problem solving. Nitko (2004) states “To assess higher-order thinking abilities, it is often necessary to develop tasks for which the solutions or answers depend on a particular piece(s) of introductory material presented along with them.” (p. 232). Presenting information in the hierarchal structure allows designers to effectively align objectives in a structured way, which complements instruction and augments comprehension. While there are several theorists who hold their own version of the learning hierarchal structure, they all share the same basic theoretical paradigm. Examples include Gagne’s levels of complexity, the instructional consistency/congruency model, and the component display theory.

Gagne’s levels’ of complexity is a hierarchal learning taxonomy, which aligns information in categories of facts, concepts, rules, and high-order rules or problem solving techniques (Gagne, Wagner, & Briggs, 1998). Gagne explains that in order for learners to be able to perform high-level tasks such as rules and problem solving, they must first have the prerequisite facts and concepts.

Gagne states, “In solving problems for which instruction has prepared them, learners are acquiring some higher-order rules (that is, complex rules). Problem solving requires that they recall some simpler, previously learned rules and defined concepts. To acquire these rules, learners must have learned some concrete concepts, and to learn these concepts, they must be able to retrieve some previously learned discriminations.” (Gagne et al., 1992, p. 54).

Dwyer (1978) encourages the use of an instructional consistency/congruency model, which introduces prerequisite objectives prior to presenting information that is required to process high-level learning tasks, such as problem solving strategies. The instructional consistency/congruency model is structured similarly to Gagne’s levels and presents itself as levels of facts, concepts, rules/principles, and problem solving objectives. The model helps ensure that learning objectives, instructional content, and assessment items are congruent to each other so that information is both presented and assessed within the same level. Other models with similar theoretical foundations have been a proposed as well. For example, Merrill’s Component Display Theory classifies “learning objectives (or capabilities) along two dimensions: performance level (remember, use, or find) and content type (facts, concepts, principles, or procedures).” (Ragan and Smith, 2004, p. 632).

The purpose of these models is to effectively measure achievement of content, ensure that both high and low levels of learning are measured correctly, and that learning objectives are aligned in an order that promotes learning. This helps ensure that the instructional methods and strategies being implemented are structured in a way that benefits learners’ processing abilities.